Solar Energy In India

According to a report, India needs 3,128 Trillionwatt hour per year (TWH) of electrical energy in the future. This annual need could be met through renewable energy sources alone in the form of solar power, wind and hydroelectric power. But is this change in energy mix really feasible? How significant would it be if India could meet its energy needs using renewable sources?

Presently, India is confronting the triple challenge of climate change, energy security and economic development. At present, coal accounts for about 42 per cent of India’s energy consumption. Being the largest raw material contributing to electricity generation, the domestic shortage of coal has slowed down the production of electricity and, as a consequence, its imports have gone up.

Also, significant coal reserves and mines have not been opened fully due to disputes over environmental concerns and land permits. Hence, in order to become self sufficient in its energy needs India needs to exploit the renewable energy sector in a big way.

According to the latest report of the WorldWatch Institute, India is among the fastest growing nations, after China, Brazil and the US, in the renewable energy sector with investments rising to 62 per cent—the highest growth rate for any single country over 2010 totals.

After seeing success in the wind energy sector in 2001, the Indian government initiated a nationwide programme to provide clean, off-grid and mostly solar-generated power in remote areas of the country.

The solar power programme, now a part of the National Action Plan for Climate Change, started as an off-grid clean energy source to bring self sufficiency and reduce the consumption of kerosene, particularly in the rural areas.

While it was initially promoted as a means to achieve energy security, it now helps in mitigating the impact of climate change. To meet this, the Remote Village Electrification Programme (RVEP) was started in 2001 by the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), later renamed the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2006.

The programme offered one or two compact fluorescent lamps CFLs, a solar panel, a battery and a solar charge regulator. Unfortunately, RVEP could cover only 9,000 villages against a target of 18,000. A number of reasons identified for this:

• manufacturing defects due to poor manufacturing of batteries and CFLs;
• poor after-sales issues; and
• corruption in the system of distribution, both top-down and bottom-up.

Government Programmes

In 2010, the Government launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (FYP), which was an off-grid clean energy mission. The Mission set the following target:

1. Enabling policy framework for deployment of 20,000 megawatt (MW) of solar power by 2022.
2. To increase capacity of grid connected solar power to 1,000 MW by 2013 and an additional capacity of 3,000 MW by 2017.
3. To create favourable conditions for developing solar manufacturing capability in the country.
4. To promote deployment of 20 million solar lights by 2025. The mission aim is to make India a global leader in solar energy.

As can be seen from the above table this mission adopted a three phase approach. It started with the last year of the Eleventh FYP (2010-11) and the first year of Twelfth Plan (2012-13).

The Way Ahead

Globally, the solar power industry has grown by 75-80 per cent. The total installed capacity of solar PV systems has reached approximately 40 Gigawatt in 2010, with Germany leading in capacity addition.

In spite of loans given by the US EXIM bank (which was one of the largest financer of renewable projects in India) to the tune of $176 million in 2011 for seven solar transactions in the country, the share of solar energy in grid interactive renewable power accounts to nearly zero per cent in the overall energy mix.

However, the total installed capacity of grid interactive renewable power had increased up to 16,817 MW in 2009-10, as compared to 14,486 MW in 2008-09, indicating a growth of 16.1 per cent during that period.

So the question remains: can solar energy be the next big thing? Major challenges that are impacting the progress of solar energy today are:

• the land needed for installation,
• project development,
• high cost of solar PV technology,
• energy storage, and
• high initial costs.

Is it possible to alter the energy mix by using more of renewable energy, especially solar (both PV and thermal)? The real challenge is the unpredictable nature of solar energy. Thus many technical challenges, not just financial, will have to be resolved if renewable energy sources alone are to meet India’s energy demand.

Protected Area Networks In India

India is one of the 17 mega diverse countries of the world. With only 2.4% of the world’s land area, 16.7% of the world’s human population and 18% livestock, it  contributes about 8% of the known global biodiversity, however, putting enormous demands on our natural resources. India is home to world’s largest wild tigers population and has got unique assemblage of globally important endangered species like Asiatic lion, Asian Elephant, One-horned Rhinoceros, Gangetic River Dolphin, Snow Leopard, Kashmir Stag, Dugong, Gharial, Great Indian Bustard, Lion Tailed  Macaque etc.

Protected Area Network

A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation. India’s conservation planning is based on the philosophy of identifying and protecting representative wild habitats across all the ecosystems. The Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list. The Federal Ministry acts as a guiding torch dealing with the policies and planning on wildlife conservation, while the provincial Forest Departments are vested with the responsibility of implementation of national policies and plans.

A network of 668 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1, 61,221.57sq. kms. (4.90% of total geographic area), comprising 102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves. The State/Union Territory wise details of PAs in the country with year of notification and area is given at Annexure-I.

39 Tiger Reserves (Annexure-II) and 28 Elephant Reserves (Annexure-III) have been designated for species specific management of tiger and elephant habitats. UNESCO has designated 5 Protected Areas as World Heritage Sites. As the ecosystems and species do not recognise political borders, the concept of Trans-boundary Protected Areas has been initiated for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors with bilateral and/or multilateral cooperation of the neighbouring nations. There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.

Sanctuary is an area which is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The Sanctuary is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary could be permitted. Further, during the settlement of claims, before finally notifying the Sanctuary, the Collector may, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, allow the continuation of any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the Sanctuary.

National Park is an area having adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The National Park is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, like that of a Sanctuary. The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside. Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed. No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary; the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it. In addition, while any removal or exploitation of wildlife or forest produce from a Sanctuary requires the recommendation of the State Board for Wildlife, removal etc., from a National Park requires recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (However, as per orders of Hon’ble Supreme Court dated 9th May 2002 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337 of 1995, such removal/exploitation from a Sanctuary also requires recommendation of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife).

Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas which link one Protected Area with another. Such declaration should be made after having consultations with the local communities. Conservation Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.

Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or community land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve, where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Community Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices. As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.

Regulations/laws relating to Protected Areas (PAs): The PAs are constituted and governed under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, which has been amended from time to time, with the changing ground realities concerning wildlife crime control and PAs management. Implementation of this Act is further complemented by other Acts viz. Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau of the Central Government supplements the efforts of provincial governments in wildlife crime control through enforcement of CITES and control of wildlife crimes having cross-border, inter-state and international ramifications. In order to strengthen and synergise global wildlife conservation efforts, India is a party to major international conventions viz.Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES),International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, UNESCO-World Heritage Committee and Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

Main issues concerning the management of Protected Areas: Wildlife conservation and management in India is currently facing a myriad of complex challenges that are both ecological and social in nature. Issues such as habitat loss/fragmentation, overuse of biomass resources in the context of biotic pressures increasing human-wildlife conflicts, livelihood dependence on forests and wildlife resources, poaching and illegal trade in wildlife parts and products, need for maintaining a broad base of public support for wildlife conservation exemplify and characterize the contemporary wildlife conservation scenario in India. The government and the civil society are taking several measures to address these issues. Improved synergies and better coordination amongst the wide array of stakeholders are needed to meet the challenges of conserving India’s diverse wilderness resources.

Biodiversity Profile Of India

India is one of the 17 identified mega diverse countries of the world. From about 70 per cent of the total geographical area surveyed so far, 45,500 plant species (including fungi and lower plants) and 91,000 animal species, representing about seven percent of the world’s flora and 6.5 per cent of the world’s fauna, respectively, have been described. Nearly 6,500 native plants are still used prominently in the indigenous healthcare systems.

From the biodiversity standpoint, India has some 59,353 insect species, 2,546 fish species, 240 amphibian species, 460 reptile species, 1,232 bird species and 397 mammal species, of which 18.4 per cent are endemic and 10.8 per cent are threatened. The country is home to at least 18,664 species of vascular plants, of which 26.8 per cent are endemic. With only 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the world, the known biological diversity of India contributes 8 per cent to the known global biological diversity. It has been estimated that at least 10 per cent of the country’s recorded wild flora, and possibly the same percentage of its wild fauna, are on the threatened list, many of them on the verge of extinction.

India has two biodiversity hot spots, namely:

1. The Eastern Himalayas
2. The Western Ghats

And, it is composed of diverse ecological habitats:

1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Wetlands
4. Coastal and Marine ecosystems
5. Desert ecosystem

India, with varied terrain, topography, land use, geographic and climatic factors, can be divided into ten recognizable biogeographic zones. These zones encompass a variety of ecosystems – mountains, plateaus, rivers, forests, deserts, wetlands, lakes, mangroves, coral reefs, coasts and islands.

Trans-Himalayan Region: Trans-Himalayan Region, constituting 5.6 per cent of the total geographical area, includes the high altitude, cold and arid mountain areas of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, Lahaul and Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh. This zone has sparse alpine steppe vegetation  that harbours several endemic species and is a favourable habitat for the biggest populations of wild sheep and goat in the world and other rare fauna that includes Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and the migratory Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigricollis).

Himalayan Zone: Himalayan Zone, in the far North, constituting 6.4 per cent of the total geographical area includes some of the highest peaks in the world and makes India one of the richest areas in terms of habitats and species. The steep slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense rainfall render the zone extremely fragile.

The alpine and sub-alpine forests, grassy meadows and moist mixed deciduous forests provide diverse habitat for endangered species of bovids such as Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Ibex (Capra ibex), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Tahr (Hemitragus jemlabicus), and Takin (Budoreas taxicolor). Other rare and endangered species restricted to this zone include Hangul (Cervus eldi eldi) and Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus)

Indian Desert Zone: Indian Desert Zone, constituting 6.6 per cent of the total geographical area, includes the Thar and the Kutch deserts and has large expanses of grassland that supports several endangered species of mammals such as Wolf (Canis lupus), Caracal (Felis caracal), Desert Cat (Felis libyca) and birds of conservation interest viz., Houbara Bustard (Chamydotis undulate) and the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps).

Semi-arid Region: Semi-arid Region, constituting 16.6 per cent of the total geographical area, is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats. Peninsular India has two large regions, which are climatically semi-arid. This semi-arid region also has several artificial and natural lakes and marshy lands.

The dominant grass and palatable shrub layer in this zone supports the highest wildlife biomass. The cervid species of Sambar (Cervus unicolor) and Chital (Axis axis) are restricted to the better wooded hills and moister valley areas respectively.

The Lion (Leo persica), an endangered carnivore species (restricted to a small area in Gujarat), Caracal (Felis caracal), Jackal (Canis aureus) and Wolf (Canis lupus) are some of the endangered species that are characteristic of this region.

Western Ghats: Western Ghats, constituting 4.0 per cent of the total geographical area, is one of the major tropical evergreen forest regions in India. The zone stretches from the hills to the South of the Tapti River in the North to Kanyakumari in the South and in the West, this zone is bound by the coast. This zone represents one of the biodiversity ‘hot spots’ with some 15,000 species of higher plants, of which 4,000 (27 per cent) are endemic to the region.
Significant species endemic to this region include Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis jobni), Lion Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura), Malabar Civet (Viverricula megaspila), Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus bylocrius) and Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocycerous griseus). The Travancore Tortoise (Indotestudo forstem) and Cane turtle (Heosemys silvatica) are two endangered taxa restricted to a small area in central Western Ghats.

Deccan Plateau: Deccan Plateau, constituting 42 per cent of the total geographical area, is a semi-arid region that falls in the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats. This bio-geographic zone of peninsular India is by far the most extensive zone, covering India’s finest forests, particularly in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa.

The zone comprising of deciduous forests, thorn forests and degraded scrubland support diverse wildlife species. Species such as Chital (Axis axis), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Nilgai (Boselapbus tragocamelus) and Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis) are abundant in this zone.

Some other species like Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) and Gaur (Antilope cervicapra) are more frequent in, or are restricted to moister areas, but are still found in fairly large numbers.

Species with small populations include the Elephant (Elephas maximus) in Bihar-Orissa and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu belts, Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in a small area at the junction of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and the hard ground Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), now restricted to a single locality in Madhya Pradesh.

Gangetic Plain: Gangetic Plain, constituting 10.8 per cent of the total geographical area, is a flat alluvial region lying to the North and South of the Ganga River and its major tributaries and in the foothills of the Himalayas. The Gangetic plain is topographically homogenous for hundreds of kilometers. The characterstic fauna of this region include Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Elephant (Elephas maximus), Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Hog-Deer (Axis porcinus) and Hispid Hare (Carprolagus bispidus). This zone gains considerable ecological significance in the context of increasing industrialization and pollution and the consequent environmental degradation and deforestation.

North-East Region: North-East Region, constituting 5.2 per cent of the total geographical area, represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese bio-geographical regions as well as being a meeting point of the Himalayan mountains and peninsular India. The North-East is thus the biogeographical ‘gateway’ for much of India’s fauna and flora and also a biodiversity hotspot. Adiverse set of habitats coupled with long term geological stability has allowed the development of significant levels of endemism in all animal and plant groups.

Coasts: The country’s extensive Coasts, constituting 2.5 per cent of the total geographical area with sandy beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine angiosperm pastures make them the wealth and health zones of India. The coastline from Gujarat to Sunderbans is estimated to be 5,423 km long. Atotal of 25 islets constitute the Lakshadweep, which are of coral origin, and have a typical reef lagoon system, rich in biodiversity. However, the densely populated Lakshadweep islands virtually have no natural vegetation.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, constituting 0.3 per cent of the total geographical area are one of the three tropical moist evergreen forests zones in India. The islands house an array of flora and fauna not found elsewhere. The elongated North-South oriented groups of 348 Andaman Islands have a biogeographical affinity with Myanmar. The Nicobar Islands, lying only 90 kms away from Sumatra have much stronger Indonesian and South-East Asian elements. These islands are centres of high endemism and contain some of India’s finest evergreen forests and support a wide diversity of corals.

Rivers Of India

The rivers of India can be classified into four groups viz., the Himalayan rivers, the Deccan rivers, the coastal rivers, and rivers of the inland drainage basin.

The main Himalayan River System includes the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system. The Indus originates near Mansarovar in Tibet, flows through India and Pakistan, and finally falls into the Arabian Sea near Karachi. Its important tributaries flowing through Indian territory are Sutlej (originating in Tibet), Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system creates principal subbasins of the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which join at Dev Prayag to form the Ganga. It then traverses through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Below the Rajmahal hills, Bhagirathi, which used to be the main course in the past, takes off, while Padma continues eastwards and enters Bangladesh.

The Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda and Sone are the important tributaries of Ganga. Rivers Chambal and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries, which join Yamuna before it merges with Ganga. The Padma and the Brahmaputra join in Bangladesh, and continue to flow as River Padma or Ganga.

The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, where it is known as Tsangpo and runs a long distance till it crosses over into India in Arunachal Pradesh under the name of Dihang.

Near Passighat, Debang and Lohit join river Brahmaputra and together run all along Assam in a narrow valley. It crosses Bangladesh as a downstream of Dhubri.

In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flow in the eastern direction and fall into the Bay of Bengal. The major East-flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Mahanadi.

Narmada and Tapti are the major West-flowing rivers.

River Godavari in the Southern peninsula forms the second largest river basin, covering ten per cent of the total area of the country, while the Mahanadi has the third largest basin.

River basin of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan, flowing into the Arabian Sea, and of Cauvery in the south, falling into the Bay of Bengal is about the same size, though with different character and shape.

There are numerous coastal rivers, which are comparatively smaller. While only a handful of such rivers drain into the sea along the East Coast, there are as many as 600 such rivers on the West Coast.

India Among Top 10 Countries In Hydro Power Capacity

India acounts for 0.36 per cent of world’s installed hydro capacity. India has an estimated potential of about 19,750 MW of Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects. So far, 898 SHP projects with an aggregate capacity of 3411 MW have been set up and 348 projects aggregating to 1309 MW are under implementation. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy ensures performance testing of all the plants for their functionality.
During the 11th Plan, a capacity of 1419 MW was added against 536 MW during the 10th Plan. A capacity addition of 2100 MW from SHP projects has been planned during the 12th Five Year Plan. Ministry Of New And Renewable Energy provids Central Financial Assistance (CFA) to set up small / micro hydro projects both in public and private sectors. Financial support is also given to the State Government for identification of new potential sites including survey and preparation of DPRs, and renovation and modernization of old SHP projects. It also helps the State Governments in formulating their policies for the development of small hydro projects and exploitation of this potential.
Have a look at this infographic which provides the details of top 10 countries in hydro power capacity.

Earthquake Risk And Vulnerability In India

According to the latest seismic zone map of India, about 59 per cent of India’s land area is vulnerable to moderate or severe seismic hazard, i.e., prone to shaking of MSK intensity VII and above. In the recent past, most Indian cities have witnessed the phenomenal growth of multi-storied buildings, super malls, luxury apartments and social infrastructure as a part of the process of development. The rapid expansion of the built environment in moderate or high-risk cities makes it imperative to incorporate seismic risk reduction strategies in various aspects of urban planning and construction of new structures.

During the period 1990 to 2006, India has experienced 6 major earthquakes that have resulted in over 23,000 deaths and caused enormous damage to property, assets and infrastructure.

The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter Scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred: Shillong, 1897 (M 8.7); Kangra, 1905 (M.8.0); Bihar–Nepal, 1934 (M 8.3); and Assam–Tibet, 1950 (M 8.6).

Scientific publications have warned that very severe earthquakes are likely to occur anytime in the Himalayan Region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in India.

The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 caused widespread damage and destruction not only to residential buildings but also to government buildings, public infrastructure and to buildings housing industrial enterprises in more than 7,900 villages in 21 districts of Gujarat. The severe economic losses caused by the Gujarat earthquake were not only restricted to the local economy but also influenced the savings and investment patterns and stock market behaviour.

Thus, the economic impact of an earthquake in a metropolitan city like Delhi or Mumbai etc., will have primary, secondary and tertiary effects.

Critical Areas of Concern in Earthquake Management

There is an increasing need being felt for a more systematic, holistic and integrated effort to address the critical areas of concern responsible for the weak seismic safety measures in India.

These Guidelines have been drawn up to address these critical areas of concern and to provide the foundation for seismic safety.

The regions away from the Himalayas and other inter-plate boundaries were previously considered to be relatively safe from the devastating impact of earthquakes. However, the Koyna earthquake of 1967 and the Latur earthquake of 1993 dispelled this widely held view and influenced the revisions of the seismic zoning map. This map, however, only indicates areas with low, moderate and high seismic hazards based on past trends.

There is an urgent need to revise the seismic zone map of India to reflect the return period related design accelerations. This work will be carried out in a phased manner covering the Himalayan ranges, the North-East and the western region in the first phase.

The critical areas of concern for the management of earthquakes in India include the:

• Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk
• Inadequate attention to structural mitigation measures in the engineering education syllabus
• Inadequate monitoring and enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning bye-laws
• Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons
• Absence of earthquake-resistant features in non-engineered construction in suburban and rural areas
• Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction practices
• Lack of adequate preparedness and response capacity among various stakeholder groups

Urgent Need: A More Realistic and Scientific Seismic Zonation Map

The Ministry of Environment And Science (MoES) will coordinate this task in collaboration with technical institutions like the IMD, the Earthquake Risk Evaluation Centre (EREC), the BIS and the Geological Survey of India (GSI), along with the concerned scientific and professional institutions.